John Locke :

Ideas and Their Classification :

 Locke has accepted two types of knowledge, on the basis of two types of ideas.First one is based on simple ideas and  the second is based on complex ideas.Simple ideas originate from sensations and are similar to the external objects.Similarity or dissimilarity to the objects are the criterion of truth and validity of the knowledge of this kind.In the words of Locke himself:

“An idea is real when it conforms to its archetype.It is adequate when the conformity is complete.The idea of a four sided triangle or of brave cowardice is incomplete.The idea of a four sided triangle or of brave cowardice is unreal or fantastical since it is composed of incompatible elements and idea of centaur since it unites simple ideas in a way in which they do not occur its nature.”1

Complex ideas are formed by the combination of simple ideas. It is not necessary that there will be object corresponding to the complex idea. It may or may not be present. On the basis of different relations of agreement, disagreement, similarity and dissimilarity of ideas, our knowledge is made. As, Thilly writes :

 “By idea Locke means, whatsoever, the mind directly apprehends, or which is the immediate objects of perception, thought or understanding.”2

Locke has rejected innate ideas. He says that at the time of our birth our mind is just like ‘dark chamber’, ’white paper’ or ‘empty cabinet’ etc. .It is a ‘tabula rasa’ or ‘plane slate’. It derives its material of knowledge from experience. The two sources of our ideas are sensation and reflection. Through sensation, mind receives sensible qualities of objects while through reflection it thinks, doubts, believes, reasons, knows, wills or creates perceptions.

The ideas are of two kinds – simple and complex. Mind compares and contrasts, combines in various ways these simple ideas and thus makes new complex ideas out of these simple ideas. Mind cannot create even a single simple idea. Some ideas are received through single sense organ while others are received through multiple sense organs. Some ideas are received through reflection only while some are received through sensation and reflection, both.

Simple Ideas:

1. Ideas received through single sense organ are ideas of color, form, taste, touch, temperature, smell, sound etc.

2. Some ideas originate from, more than one sense organs. These ideas are of, space – time, form, motion, inertia etc. These ideas originate from senses of sight and touch.

3. The cause of existence of some ideas are reflection only. In reflection we examine various ideas presented to our mind. The natural outcome of reflection is – perception, prejudice, remembrance etc.

4. Fourth type of simple ideas come into existence through both sensation and reflection. For example pleasure, pain, unity, time, order etc. are such types of ideas.

All these four kinds of simple ideas are received either from sensation or reflection or from both sensation and reflection. All our knowledge is based on these simple ideas.

Complex Ideas:

Put together in certain arrangement, these simple ideas give birth to complex ideas. Ideas of relations are of such type. Some ideas are mixed together, separated from one another and by the process of abstraction they are made complex ideas. Mind passively assimilates simple ideas but becomes active while creating complex ideas. According to Locke, there are three types of complex ideas. These are:

1. Ideas of Modes: The basis of the existence of this type of ideas is, substance. Ideas of triangle, gratitude, murder etc. are this type of ideas. As Locke writes:

“Modes I call such complex ideas which, however compounded, contain not in them the supposition of subsisting by themselves but are considered as dependent on, or affections of substances.”3

Ideas of modes are of two types:

1. Simple Modes: The ideas of simple modes are made of varieties of only one simple idea, excluding any other type of idea. For example, ideas of dozen, century etc. include repetitions of one idea twelve or hundred times.

Complex Modes: Ideas of complex modes are created by numerous simple ideas. Idea of beauty is this type of idea. Ideas of complex modes are relative to the society and nation, they belong to. For example, concept of justice changes from society to society or country to country. So, Locke says that while discussing these type of ideas we should take into consideration the time and space of the idea, otherwise unnecessary clash will result.

Ideas of Substance:

Ideas of substance are complex ideas, made up of the mixture of various simple ideas. Any complex idea of substance includes various ideas of qualities and modes. It is the substratum of various ideas of colors, weight, density and other qualities. Substance is known only through its attributes and modes.We presume that there is substance of which these are qualities.And we give that substance a name.Without imagining the idea of substance we cannot think about the qualities of that substance,which are put together ,there.In the words of Locke himself :

“The ideas of substance are such combinations of simple ideas as are taken to represent,distinct particular things subsisting by themselves.”4

This basis or substratum is called as substance.The basis of material qualities is maerial,to which Locke gives the name of unreflective or unthinking substance ,not material.He says that ,may be so that they have some potential power of thinking of which we are not aware of.Hence it would be better to call them unreflective.While the substance of spiritual qualities must be spiritual one.Locke accepts the idea of God as the spiritual basis of all substances.The ideas of infinity,eternity,supremacy,existence,perfection are attached to the idea of God.Substance,in a sense,is the underlying reality of all the objects of the universe,besides their various individual existence.

Ideas of Relations :

“Thirdly,the last sort of complex ideas is that we call relation which consists in the consideration and comparing one idea with another.”5

Ideas of relation are made up of simple ideas.The idea of the relation of cause and effect is the most significant one,known ever.The relation of cause and effect is derived from both sensation and reflection.Through our senses we know the invariable concomitance of cause and effect.We call the producer,cause and that which is produced as ,effect.Thus,fire is the cause of smoke.Cause gives birth to something while effect takes birth from something.If we find something coming into existence by the operation of another thing,we can call this cause and effect relation without examining the real process of this relation.There are various other relations like relation of time,place,extension,identity e.t.c. .

Refutation of Innate Ideas :

Rationalist thinkers accept universal and necessary form of knowledge.They say that we cannot receive such universal and necessary knowledge through sense-organs.So,this type of knowledge must be innate.Rejecting this view of rationalists Locke says:

“There is nothing more commonly taken for granted than that there are certain principles,both speculative and perfect and practical (for they speak of both),universally agreed upon by all mankind; which therefore,they argue , must needs be constant impressions which the souls of men receive in their first beings and which they bring into the world with them,as necessarily and recall as they do any of their inherent faculties.Universal consent proves nothing innate.”6

According to some rationalists,these universal concepts are innate but since they exit in our subconscious mind,we are not aware of them.Rejecting this view of rationalists Locke says:

“It is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be” not universally assented to.”7

Locke gives another reason for non-existence of innate ideas.He says that if there are innate ideas,why they are not known to children,idiots e.t.c. . He says:

“Not on the mind naturally imprinted,because not known to children idiots.”8

He says that it is contradiction in terms that we have knowledge of something and at the same time we aren’t aware of them.From certain empirical facts,we reach to the conclusion of universal knowledge.Only after knowing counting,a child can know that 2 + 2 = 4.He says that without experience we cannot know anything about law of contradiction or law of identity e.t.c. .

He says that even moral principles differ from society to society and nation to nation to nation.There aren’t any universal moral principles.He says that even the concept of justice differs from society to society.There isn’t any universal concept of justice.

Further he says that according to some rationalists,concept of God is innate.If this is the case,then why there are atheists.At the same time there isn’t any universal concept of God,even.It differs from society to society,nation to nation.Why there is so much bloodshed in the name of God ,if there is  any innate idea of God.There must be universal consent about it.

According to some rationalists,we have innate ideas in potential form,it actualizes through development.Locke rejects this view also.He says that there must be capacity of innate ideas,not the ideas itself.If it were the case,then we could find them in children and mad men,also.

So,it has been proved that we don’t have any innate ideas.He says that at the time of birth our mind is like a plain slate.We receive all the knowledge through the windows of sensation and reflection.

All ideas come from sensation or reflection.Let us then suppose the mind to be ,as we say,white paper,void of all characters,without any ideas;how comes it to be furnished! Whence it by that vast store which the busy and boundless fancy of man has painted on it with an almost endless variety.Whence has it all the materials of reason andknowledge.To this I answer in one word,from experience.I that all our knowledge is founded and from that it ultimately derives itself.Our observation employed either about external sensible objects,or about the internal operations of our minds perceived and reflected on …is that which supplies our understanding with all the materials thinking.The two are the fountains of knowledge,from whence all the ideas we have,or we can naturally have,do spring.

Through sensation we receive knowledge of outer world,while through reflection we receive the knowledge of inner world.We receive knowledge of outer world through five sense organs.Knowledge which is gained through sense-object contact is sensory knowledge.As Conner writes:

“Locke believed that ideas of sensation were effects in consciousness of physical stimuli acting on our sense organs.”9

While the source of reflective knowledge is mind.We feel sadness,happiness e.t.c. through mind.This type of knowledge is called by Locke reflective knowledge. As Conner views:

“The second source of our ideas Locke calls reflection,which we should call introspection…..that notice which the mind takes of its own operation and the manner of them.”10

Locke says that we receive sensation first.Reflection is sensation based.Without sensation we cannot have reflection.So,knowledge of self is based on the knowledge of body.Locke has reversed the process of Descartes according to whom we receive immediately and intuitively the knowledge of ourselves.While knowledge of outer world is based

on sense organs and is indirect.As Falckenberg opines:

“The antithesis of substance has become a quality in the sensation of perception.But while Descartes has so forth ascribed precedence to the mind,the soul to be better known then in the body.In Locke the relation of the two was reversed,since he made the perception of the self dependent perception of external object.”11

Theory of Knowledge:

Locke says , “With me,to know and to be certain is the same thing,what I know that I am certain of….and what comes short of certainty,I think cannot be called knowledge.”12

This very statement of Locke shows that according to him only that type of knowledge will be accepted which is certain.In the field of maths we find this type of knowledge.Locke was also influenced by the certainty of mathematical knowledge.But he was not sure about the certainty of philosophical knowledge.So, he tried to establish philosophy on the solid ground of maths.As he writes:

“It is ambition enough to be employed as an underlabourer in clearing the ground a little, and removing some of the rubbish that lies in the way to knowledge.”13

He tried to examine the origin,nature and limits of knowledge.He wanted to study the original archetype of knowledge and its certainty and limits.He says about himself as:

“His purpose is to enquire into the origin,certainty and extent of ‘human-knowledge’ together with the ground and degrees of belief,opinion and assent.”14

There are three main points to be solved in the field of knowledge :

1. How to establish certainty and probability of knowledge.

2.How to ascertain the reality of knowledge.

3.Which type of newness is necessary to consider it as teaching.

According to Locke the direct knowledge of the agreement,disagreement or repugnance of the ideas is called knowledge.

 Locke says that knowledge is “nothing but the perception of the connection of and agreement or disagreement and repugnancy of any of our ideas.In this alone it consists.”15

An inquiry into the understanding pleasant and useful,since it is the understanding that sets man above the rest of sensible beings, and gives him all the advantage and dominion which he has over them.It is certainly a subject even for its nobleness,worth our labour.To inquire into the understanding,like the eye,whilst it makes us see and perceive all other all things,no notice of itself;and it requires art and pains to set it at a distance and make its own object.

According to Locke,knowledge is based on sense-perception.We receive materials of our knowledge from two sources – sensation and thought.Sensations are turned into ideas in the mind.

First,I shall inquire into the origin of those ideas,notions,or whatever else you please to call them, which a man observes, and is conscious to himself he has in his mind and the ways whereby the understanding comes to be furnished with them.Secondly,I shall endeavour to show what knowledge the understanding hath by those ideas and the certainty,evidence,and extent of it.Thirdly,I shall make some inquiry into the nature and grounds of faith or opinion.

Locke has accepted two types of knowledge,on the of two types of knowledge on the basis of two types of ideas.First one is based on simple ideas and  the second is based on complex ideas.Simple ideas originate from sensations and are similar to the external objects.Similarity or dissimilarity to the objects are the criterion of truth and validity of the knowledge of this kind.In the words of Locke himself:

“An idea is real when it conforms to its archetype.It is adequate when the conformity is complete,The idea of a four sided triangle or of brave cowardice is complete.The idea of a four sided triangle or of brave cowardice is unreal or fantastical since it is composed of incompatible elements and idea of centaur since it unites simple ideas in a way in which they do not occur its nature.”16

Complex ideas are formed by the combination of simple ideas.It is not necessary that there will be object corresponding to the complex idea.It may or may not be present.On the basis of different relations of agreement,disagreement,similarity and dissimilarity of ideas,our knowledge is made.

Three Grades of Knowledge:

Intuitive Knowledge :

Knowledge,according to Locke,is received by means of combination of ideas.Sometimes the knowledge is immediate and we don’t need intervention of the third idea to know the relation of two ideas.This type of immediate knowledge is called by Locke,intuitive knowledge.He writes :

“If we reflect on our own way of thinking,we shall find that sometimes the agreement or disagreement of two ideas immediately by themselves,without the intervention of any other;and this I think we may call intuitive knowledge.For in this the mind is at no pains of proving or examining,but perceives the truth as the eye doth light, only by being directed towards it.” 17

We directly and immediately know the difference between white and black,circle and triangle e.t.c. .There are degrees of evidence in knowledge.Intuitive knowledge is clearest and most certain type of knowledge.It is self-evident.We don’t need to prove it and in fact it cannot be proved.Certainty and evidence of knowledge depends on intuitive knowledge.

Demonstrative Knowledge:

Sometimes direct and certain knowledge of ideas is impossible. So, we have to take recourse to other ideas to compare and contrast them. Then only we can reach to the conclusion. This type of knowledge is called by Locke, reasoning. He says:

“When the mind cannot so bring its ideas together by their immediate comparison to perceive their agreement, or disagreement, it is fain by the intervention of other ideas, to discover the agreement; and this is that which we call reasoning.”18

Its evidence is not proved, though its proofs are certain. It is not as certain as intuitive knowledge. That is why it is not immediately accepted. Logical truths are such type of knowledge. Here we deduce conclusion after steps of arguments. And each step must be as clear and certain as intuitive knowledge.

Sensitive Knowledge:

Knowledge of worldly objects is sensory knowledge. We cannot have intuitive or demonstrative knowledge of them. Knowledge, which we receive through sense – organs is called sensitive knowledge, by Locke. He writes:

“There is indeed another perception of the mind, employed about the particular existence of finite being without us, which going beyond bare probability, and yet not reaching perfectly to either of the foregoing degrees of certainty.”19

This sensory knowledge differs from illusion, hallucination or dreams. Though sensory knowledge is more reliable than dreams or illusory knowledge, it cannot be accepted as certain and definite knowledge as intuition and reasoning. He says:

“We cannot discover any necessary connection between many of our ideas. We do not see what connection there is between the figure, size, motion of the invisible parts of a body and its color, taste, sound. Observation tells me that it is malleable, but that all gold is malleable, is not a self evident truth.”20

Though Locke has accepted only intuitive and demonstrative knowledge as valid forms of knowledge, he has accepted sensitive knowledge as a category of knowledge.

Theory of Substance:

“The ideas, then we have, to which we give the general name substance being nothing but the supposed, but unknown, support of those qualities we find existing which we imagine cannot subsist. Sine substance, without something to support them, we call that support substantial; which according to the import of the word, is, in plain English, standing under or upholding.”21

The above statement made by Locke shows that substance is nothing else but the unknown support of those qualities we find existing. It is also clear that this substratum as such is unknowable. Locke is, in this sense, representationist because according to him, we can only assume the existence of substance. We perceive the qualities and we give a name to the combination of those qualities. We proceed from particular to general. From particular qualities we assume the general substance as the basis of those qualities. In the words of Liebnitz:

“It is by such combinations of simple ideas, and nothing else, that we represent particular sorts of substance to ourselves, such are the ideas we have of their several species in our minds: and such only do we, their specific names, signify to ….. ‘man’ ‘horse’, ‘sun’, upon hearing which words everyone who understands the language frames in his mind a combination of those several ideas which he has usually observed, or fancied to exist together under that denominations; all which he supports to rest in and be, as it were, adherent to that unknown common subject, which inheres not in anything else.”22

We should take into consideration this fact that Locke doesn’t negate the existence of substance but he denies only its knowability. This agnostic approach of Locke reached its culmination in the philosophy of Kant. According to Locke substance is a complex idea, which is composition of various simple ideas. The causes of this complex idea are three simple ideas :

1. Primary Quality

2. Secondary Quality

3. Active and Passive Power

Types of Substance:

According to Locke there are three types of substance:

1. Unthinking Substance – Body

2. Spiritual Substance – Soul

3. Causa sui – God

As on the basis of qualities like extension, figure, we assume the existence of material substance in the same manner, on the basis of qualities like thinking, willing, feeling etc. we assume the thinking substance i.e. soul. Thought is the quality of soul while extension is the quality of body. Locke himself says:

“We have also the ideas of several qualities inherent in bodies and have the clear distinct ideas of them; which qualities are but the various modifications of the extension of cohering solid parts and their motion. We have likewise the ideas of the several modes of thinking viz, believing, intending, fearing, hoping; all which are but the several modes of thinking.”23

For Locke, solidity or impenetrability is the essential attribute of the body. While dealing with the concept of body Locke shows his interest in microbiology. He says that body is made of very minute corpuscles with bulk, figure and power of motion. These invisible corpuscles are the constituent parts of matter. We cannot even perceive the corpuscles and even cause of their conglomeration is not known to us. He says that if we could know the figure, size, motion of the minute constituent parts of any body, we should know how they would interact with each other. He says that we do not know these things, we do not know what bonds hold these corpuscles together; what cement makes them stick together so firmly, we do not know how one moves the other, how motion is transferred from one to another. So long as we don’t find answers of all these questions, this corpuscular hypothesis is not going to help us much. Thilly rightly says:

“What Locke no doubt envisaged-however vaguely-was a science similar to modern physical chemistry, in which the chemical properties, though not strictly deducible from the physical, are explained and interpreted by reference to the latter. It is interesting to note also that Locke’s corpuscular theory of matter, unlike the atomic theory, does not envisage ultimate and indivisible particles of matter.”24

God is the Supreme Being, according to Locke We don’t have any innate idea of God. Yet it is as much certain as the geometrical formula i.e. the opposite angles formed by the intersection of two straight lines are equal. By exceeding the idea of existence, duration, knowledge and power, to the level of infinity, we can form the idea of God. In a sense God is perfection incarnate. Thilly says:

“…..Locke explains the genesis of the idea of God, but he does not claim to know God’s real essence. Locke’s account of the origin of the idea of God – like his theory of all other ideas of sense or reflection or both  remains obstinately empirical and nominalistic; in this aspect of his philosophy he makes no concessions to rationalism and the realism of universals.”25

Locke has given two proofs for the existence of God – causal and teleological. By knowing his own existence man assumes that his cause must be also real like him. Man derives everything from his cause. This eternal source of all beings must be most powerful and most intelligent as well. Of course, It must have the quality of thinking, because any unthinking substance cannot give birth to thinking entity. So, this thinking entity cannot be material. Since God has made man as His replica, the archetype must be the omniscient, omnipotent and omnipresent as well. Locke says that if it is possible that thought can produce motion then it is also possible that God can create man out of nothing.

Distinction Between Primary and Secondary Qualities:

The substratum of qualities is substance. We can know substance only through qualities. So, it is necessary to know quality for knowing substance. We perceive qualities through our sense organs. So, their existence is proved by sense perception. The nature of any object is called its attribute. We find two types of substances in the world. One is conscious and the another one is unconscious. Attributes are the cause of ideas. So, the power which produces ideas or concepts is called quality. In the words of Locke himself:

“Whatever the mind perceives or is the immediate object of perception, thought or understanding, that  I call idea and the power to produce any idea in our mind, I call quality of the same subject wherein the power is.”26

Qualities are of two types: Primary and Secondary Qualities.

Primary quality is the inherent quality of any object. It cannot be separated from the object. For example – figure is the inherent quality of any object. Figure, solidity, extension, motion, rest, number are the primary qualities of objects. Locke says:

“The ideas of primary qualities or things, which are discovered by senses and are in them even when we perceive them or not: such are the bulk, figure, number, situation and motion of the parts of bodies; which are really in them.” 27

These qualities are inseparable from objects and cause of our ideas. Locke calls these qualities independent because these qualities are not dependent on our perception. They exist independent of our knowledge of them. From the point of view of knowledge they are dependent but from the point of view of existence these qualities are independent. Secondary qualities are produced through primary qualities. For example beauty is secondary qualities but it cannot exist without the primary quality of figure. Secondary qualities are sensation which are expressed through primary qualities. So, the causes of various sensations are secondary qualities. But these secondary qualities are dependent on primary qualities. These are dependent from the point of view of the origin and knowledge as well. They depend on primary qualities for their origin and they depend on the knower for their knowledge. In the words of Locke:

“Such qualities, which in truth are nothing in the objects themselves, but powers to produce various sensation in us by their primary qualities, i.e., by the bulk, figure, texture, as colours, sounds, tastes etc. I call secondary qualities.”28

References :

1.Frank Thilly – A History of Philosophy , p. – 335

2.Locke,An Essay Concerning Human Understanding,Book 1^st ,p. – 133

3.Ibid , pp. – 133-34

4.Ibid , p. – 134

5.Locke,An Essay Concerning Human Understanding,Book 1^st ,p. –  67

6.Ibid , p. - 68

7.Ibid.

8.Ibid. p. - 90

9.D. J. O. Conner,History of Philosophy,p.- 208

10.Ibid. p.-258

11.R. Falkenberg ,A History of Modern Philosophy,p.- 149

12.Locke,An Essay Concerning Human understanding,Book 4^th ,16 3

13Ibid.Book 1^st ,p. - 63

14Ibid.

15.Ibid.

16.R. Falckenberg,History of Modern Philosophy,p. - 165

17.Locke,An Essay Concerning Human understanding,Book 1^st ,p. - 320

18.Locke,An Essay Concerning Human understanding,Book 1^st ,p. - 325

19.Ibid , p. - 326

20.Ibid , p. - 380

21.Frank Thilly,A History of Philosophy, p. - 340

22.Locke,An Essay Concerning Human Understading,Book 1^st ,p.-186.

23.Ibid , p. – 188

24.Ibid , p. – 189

25.Frank Thilly – A History of Philosophy , p. – 345

26.Ibid.

27.F Mayer,History of Modern Philosophy,p.-16

28.Locke,An Essay Concerning Human Understanding,Book 1^st ,p.-189