Berkeley :

Rejection of Distinction Between Primary and Secondary Qualities :

According to Locke qualities are powers of substance,which produce ideas in our mind.Matter is the substratum of qualities.According to Locke there are two types of qualities – Primary and Secondary.Primary qualities are real and inseparable qualities of matter while secondary qualities are powers produced by our minds by primary qualities.These secondary qualities are merely sensations of our mind while qualities like figure , extension ,solidity e.t.c. exist in matter itself.Qualities like taste,touch,beauty and sound e.t.c. are secondary qualities.So,our knowledge is limited to our ideas only.Soul acts on them.Arranges,separates,divides,unites and relates.On this basis of our knowledge of qualities we assume external existence of matter as substance.The real point of objection for Berkeley is this matter as substance.

Berkeley says that the real cause of atheism,irreligion,skepticism is this concept of matter.If we cannot know anything other than our ideas,how can we prove the existence of matter as substratum of which we don’t have any idea.According to Locke this matter is unknown something.But Berleley says that we cannot accept existence of any thing of which we don’t have any idea.That’s why he has said that esse est percipii – to exist is to be perceived.

According to Locke matter exists outside of our mind.But the real problem is the knowledge of the external object because our sense organs don’t inform us about the existence of any external object which is similar to our ideas.Only we can infer its existence.But inference itself is based on invariable concomitance which is absent in this case because materialists themselves accept this fact that there isn’t any necessary relation between ideas and objects.He himself writes :

“As for our senses,by them we have the knowledge only of our sensations,they do not inform us that things exist without mind ….what reason can induce us to believe the existence of bodies without mind.”1

In fact we can never perceive the substance.While in the dream state we perceive many things,all of which are unreal.As Berkeley wrutes:

“What happens in the dreams,frenzies,and the like puts it beyond dispute…that it is possible we might be affected with all the ideas we have now ,though there were no bodies existing without resembling them.”2

Locke has accepted two types of qualities ,on the basis of which he tries to assert the existence of matter.He says that primary qualities are real qualities of matter of which matter is the substratum.But Berkeley says that the same argument which Locke has used for secondary qualities can be used for primary qualities.Primary qualities are also relative to space- time.Berkeley writes :

“It is said that heat and cold are affections only in the mind and not at all patterns of real beings,for the same body which appears cold to one hand seems warm to another.Now,why we may not argue that figure and extansion are not patterns,because to the same eye at different stations they appear various.”3

As it has been proved that primary qualities are also relative,we can prove the unchangeableness of secondary qualities also.Though secondary qualities change from person to person yet given certain conditions it wouldn’t also vary;and remain the same  every time we will experience it.For example,even if thousand persons with the same body temperature will put their hands in the water of same temperature,their experiences wouldn’t vary from person to person.If the condition will change definitely,the experience will change.The same is the case with primary quality.If we will change the shape of table for the person B from the shape of the table which was for the person A definitely.Their experiences will change of  primary qualities also.

As Locke says that the primary qualities are the real qualities of substances,the same is the case with secondary qualities.If there isn’t any object which doesn’t have any extension,there isn’t any object which doesn’t have any colour,also.

On the basis of the above arguments Berkeley rejects the distinction between primary and secondary qualities.

According to Locke matter is inert at the same time he accepts qualities as power of matter.Berkeley says that  if matter is inert than how it can produce qualities which are powers.Berkeley says that only soul is active and it is the substratum of the sensation of qualities.He Writes:

“We perceive a continual succession of ideas;some are a new excited,others are changed or totally disappear.There is therefore some cause of ideas,whereon they depend and which produces and changes substance…an incorporeal active substance.”4Locke couldn’t prove the existence of matter as substratum of qualities.

 Immaterialism:

To solve the problems regarding religion,theism or skepticism Berkeley has rejected the concept of matter.As he writes in the Treatise:

“Were it necessary to add farther proof against the existence of matter,after what has been said,I could instance several of those errors and difficulties which have sprung from that tenet.It has occasioned numberless controversies and disputes in philosophy,and not a few of far greater moment in religion.”5

Berkeley’s metaphysics is based on epistemology.He says that we cannot accept the existence of anything of which we cannot have the sense experience.If we cannot know anything other than ideas,we cannot accept its existence.Locke accepted the existence of matter,but he couldn’t prove its existence.Matter remained something unknown for him.

Berkeley rejected abstract ideas just to reject the existence of matter because through abstraction we try to prove the existence of matter.He writes in the Treatise:

“But,say you,they are extension in general,and motion in general: thus we see how much the tenet of extended ,movable substances existing without the mind,depend on that strange doctrine of abstract ideas.And here I cannot but remark,how nearly the vague and indeterminate description of matter or corporeal substance,which the modern philosophers are run into by their own principles,resembles that antiquated and so much ridiculed notion of material prima,to be met with in Aristotle and his followers.”.6

According to Locke,unknown substance was the substratum of qualities and that exists as the basis of such qualities.But Berkeley rejected this idea of unthinking substance as contradictory one.He says :

“Now for an idea to exist in an unperceiving thing is a manifest contradiction;for to have an idea is all one as to perceive:that therefore wherein colour,figure,and thr like qualities exist,mut perceive them;hence it is clear there can be no unthinking substance or substratum of those ideas.”7

Further he asks that what did Locke mean by the word substratum.Whether the relation between the qualities and substance is the same as between pillar and roof.He says :

“Now I desire that you would explain what is meant by matter’s supporting extension say you ,I have no idea of matter,and therefore cannot explain it ………..yet you must be supposed to know what relation it bears to accidentsand what is meant by its supporting them.It is evident support cannot here be taken in its usual or literal sense,as when we say that pillars support a building:in what sense therefore must it be taken?”8

According to Locke,matter is inactive or inert.But Berkeley says that if matter can create ideas then how can it be called inactive.Berkeley says that in fact matter doesn’t create ideas but it is mind or soul which is the source of all ideas.He writes thus:

“……. It may be thought easier to conceive and explain the manner of their production,by supposing external bodies in theirlikeness rather than otherwise; and so it might be at least probable there are such things as bodies that excite their ideas in our minds.But neither can this be said; for though we give the materialists their external bodies,they by their own confession are naver the nearer knowing how our ideas are produced;since they own themselves unable to comprehend in what manner body can act upon spirit,or how it is possible it should imprint any idea in the mind.Hence it is evident the production of ideas or sensations in our minds can be no reason why we should suppose matter or corporeal substances,since that is acknowledged to remain equally inexplicable with or without this supposition.”9

He further writes, “We perceive a continual succession of ideas;some are a new excited,others are changed or totally disappear.there is therefore some cause of these ideas,whereon they depend,and which produces and changes substance…..an incorporal active substance.”10

Critique of Abstract Ideas:

The real cause of assertion of matter is abstraction of ideas.But in Berkeley’s view mind cann’t create abstract ideas.We cannot frame an idea of a triangle minus its qualities or an abstract idea of motion minus a moving body with the qualities of motion like swift or slow e.t.c. .But,of course,we can create general ideas.As Thilly writes,

“There are general ideas,to be sure,in this sense – a general idea is one which,considered in itself,is particular,but which becomes general by being made to represent or stand for all other particular ideas of the same sort.”11

Berkeley says that general ideas are sufficient for communicaton.We don’t need abstract ideas for any type of mathematical,philosophical or scientific description.As it is his assertion that esse est percipii,so it is not possible for anything exist without being perceived.Even we cannot think about the abstract idea minus any  sensation or perception.Rejection of abstract  ideas is the ground of rejection of matter for Berkeley.As he writes :

“Retaining only what is common to all being ,and so make an abtract idea wherein all the particulars equally partake …we come by the abstract of man or humanity;wherein it is true included colour,stature… but something abstract from all these.The mind being able to consider each quality singly or abstract from those other qualities does by that means frame to itself abstract ideas .”12

According to Berkeley all the ideas are real,not imaginary.We cannot perceive abstract ideas,so we cannot accept their existence.Berkeley rejects abstract ideas but he doesn’t reject general ideas.He rejects the duality of the objects and abstract ideas.Berkeley has rejected the reality of the abstract ideas.

“I cannot by any effort of thought conceive the abstract idea.It is impossible for me to form the abstract idea of motion distinct from the body moving and which is neither swift nor slow,curvilinear nor rectilinear;and the like may be said of all other loke general abstract ideas what so ever.13

He further says that : “I do not deny absolutely there general ideas; but only that there are any abstract general ideas… that particular line becomes general by being made a sign,so the name ‘line’ which taken absolutely is particular,by being a sign is made general.”14

He says that it is impossible to cite example of abstract idea.He writes:

“There is no one settled idea which limits the signification of the word triangle.It is one thing for keeping a name constantly to the same definition,and another to make it stand everywhere for the same idea;the one is necessary,the other useless and impracticable.”15

Esse est Percipi – The Problem of Solipsism :

According to Berkeley to be (esse) is to be (perceived).We cannot accept existence of anything which we cannot perceived.Berkeley is an idealist thinker.He doesn’t accept the existence of objects except ideas.Whatever we call objects are nothing but merely ideas.We can know only ideas.So,the object of our knowledge are only ideas.Only that is real,which is knowable.We can know ideas,so only ideas are real.We need knower for the known.So,there exists soul.There is existence of only soul and objects i.e. ideas.But there is identity between known and knower.Because the existence of the object depends on its being known.He has written in the Treatise :

“ That neither our thought,nor our passions,nor ideas formed by the imagination exists without the mind,is what everybody will allow and to me it is no less evident that the various sensations, or ideas imprinted on the sense,however,blended or combined together can not exist otherwise than in a mind perceived them.”16

He further writes :“By matter we are to understand an inert,senseless substance in whish extension,figure,motion actually subsist.But extension,figure are only ideas in mind.Hence,the very notion of matter involves contradiction in it.”17

He says that if we wouldn’t perceive anything someone else will perceive that and even though nobody perceives that object ,God will perceive that object.Ideas are immaterial.Their existence depends on the existence of soul.As he writes :

“Though we hold indeed the objects of sense to be nothing else but ideas which can not exist unperceived,yet we may not hence conclude they have no existence except only while they are perceived;since there may be some other spirits that perceives them though we do not.”18

Berkeley has rejected the existence of matter.According to him only ideas are real.These ideas depend on mind.They don’t have any external existence.Our knowledge depends on sense organs and through sense organs we cannot know any thing but ideas.The objects of knowledge are within,not without.They are only ideas. They cannot exist without soul because existence means being perceived by someone in Berkeley’s philosophy. He writes :

“It is indeed an opinion strongly prevailing amongst men that houses,mountains,rivers and all sensible objects have their existence apart from their being perceived by the understanding.The forementioned objects are our own ideas.”19

His famous statement is this – “I am not making objects ideas,but ideas,objects.” By this statement he means that the objects of knowledge are only ideas.To imagine the existence of any external object for these ideas,is useless.For example,table is nothing else but conglomeration of the ideas of extension,figure,shape e.t.c. .Table is merely name through which we indicate a conglomeration of ideas.

But a question arises here that doesn’t object exist,when they are not perceived.Berkeley says that by perception he means ‘the capacity of perception’.Even though he is not here to perceive any object,God perceives them throughout.

Berkeley has accepted both sense experience and reason as source of knowledge.We know the phenomenal reality through sense organs but to know the noumenal realities we have to take the half of reason.Knowledge of soul,God and scientific laws as causation e.t.c. can be known only through reason.As Falkenberg writes :

“Sense and experience acquaint us merely with the course of phenomenal effects;the reason,which opens up to the realm of causation of the spiritual is the only sure guide to science and truth.The understanding does not feel the senses do not know.”20

God And Self :

Self :

Berkeley takes help of law causation to prove the existence of soul.He says that if there are ideas or sensations,there must be some cause of those ideas or sensations.And any material substance cannot be the cause of ideas.It must be some active,incorporeal substance and only soul is like this.That’s why soul is the cause of our ideas and sensations.As Thilly writes :

“A spirit is one undivided,active being,which in so far as it perceives ideas,is called understanding;in so far as it produces or otherwise operates upon them,it is called will.”21

Though cause of all ideas or sensations,we cannot have any idea of soul itself.Because ideas are passive and inert while soul is active and creative.Hence we cannot have any idea of the cause of all activities.It is not perceivable.It is known through its products.Through the activities of soul,like willing , feeling ,deciding loving e.t.c. we can have only the notion of soul.Thilly writes :

“We cannot perceive the spirit itself,but only the effects which it produces.Still,we have some notion of soul or spirit and the operations of the mind,such as willing,loving,hating,in as much as we understand the meaning of these words.”22

He further writes :“When I deny sensible things as existent out of the mind,I do not mean any mind in particular,but all minds.No,it is plain, they have an existence exterior to my mind.There is an omnipresent external mind which knows and comprehends all things and exhibits them in our view.”23

He says that since matter is inactive it cannot excite our ideas.So, there must be necessarily some spiritual entity like spirit ,which is the cause of our ideas.He writes :

“It must therefore be a substance;but it has been shown that there is no material substance,it remains,therefore that the cause of ideas is an incorporeal,active substance or spirit.”24

He further says that inert matter cannot think,will,feel or decide.Consciousneess is not the property of matter.So ,necessarily it is soul which is the cause of our whole mantal activities.He says thus:

“By the word spirit,we mean only that which thinks,wills and perceives;this and this alone,constitutes the significance of that term…those words which do mean to signify a real thing which is never an idea but that which perceives ideas,and wills and reasons about them.”25

Though empiricist philosopher,Berkeley has accepted sometimes the role of reason also in the thinking process.This very statement proves:

“We comprehend our own existence by inward feeling or reflection and of other spirits by reason.”26

God :

Berkeley says we don’t have any control over our sensations.We cannot choose the object of our sensation.Also we don’t have any control over the ideas being imprinted on our mind.Hence there must be some other will which produces them.This will is the will of God,according to Berkeley.Also there is difference between ideas of sense and the ideas of imagination.Ideas of sense are ordered,coherent and in sequence.They aren’t randomly excited as those of imagination.So,according to Berkeley there must be a law giver,who monitors all these ideas according to the law which he calls laws of nature and the law giver or as Author .Through experience we come to know the sequence of ideas.By mistake we take this sequence of ideas as cause and effect of each other.The ideas imprinted by God on our mond are real while those received through sensation are images of things.

According to Berkeley the real cause of atheism is the belief in the existence of matter.That is why he tried to refute the concept of matter first,so that he can propound theism instead of atheism.He says that we can infer existence of God like the existence of other souls.He says that we can infer his existence by viewing order in the nature.As he writes :

“It is evident to everyone that those things which are called the works of nature are not produced by,or dependent on the wills of me and if we attend to the meaning and import of the attributes of one ,eternal,infinitewise,good and perfect,we shall clearly perceive that they belong to the aforesaid spirit.” 27

By posing God as the cause of all ideas,Berkeley saved himself from the epithet of subjective idealist.Our ideas are based on our mind because our mind receives them but it does not create them.Only God can create them.Our sensations are excited by God,that’s why they are more vivid, regular and constant that images.God has capacity of infinite ideas.Our’s are only few of them.The ideas which exist in the mind of God are called by Berkeley archetypal while those aroused by nature are ectypal.So,we can infer the existence of God through the existence of these ideas because the ideas existing in our mind are only a part of the ideas existing in the mind of God.We can know our soul by experience while that of God by inference like the knowledge of other souls.

Berkeley says that we think that there is relation of cause and effect between the antecedent and consequent.But antecedent is merely sign and consequent is signified one.There isn’t any relation of cause and effect.Only God is the real cause of everything.It is also to His will that fire creates heat and water creates coolness.At the same time this freedom of will is restricted to God only.For human  being relation of fire and heat is necessary relation but for God it is dependent on his will.He can even create coolness out of fire and heat out of water.So,causation is nothing else but the will of God.

“As we conceive ideas that are in the minds of others spirits by means of others spirits by means of our own ,which we suppose to be resemblances of them;so we know other spirits by means of own soul which in that sense is the image or ideas of them…blueness or heat by me perceived has to those ,ideas perceived by another.” 28

1. A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, p.-49 .

2. Ibid , p. – 50.

3. Ibid .

4. Ibid , p. – 11-13.

5. Ibid , p. – 50

6. Ibid , p. – 18

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid.

 9. Frank Thilly,A History of Philosophy,p. – 349.

10. Berkeley ,Introduction To The Principles of Human Knowledge,p.-26

11. Frank Thilly – A History of Philosophy , p. – 359

12 Berkeley – Introduction to the principles of Human Knowledge

13. Ibid.

14.Ibid.

15. Ibid.

16. Berkeley – Introduction to the Principles of Human Knowledge       ,p.- 3.

17. Ibid ,p. – 4.

18. Ibid ,p. – 48

19. Ibid.

20. R. Falckenberg, History of Modern Philosophy ,p. – 219.

21. Frank Thilly – A History of Philosophy , p. – 361

22. Ibid .

23. S . E. Stumpf, Socrates to Satre, p.-994.

24. Berkeley,Introduction to The Principles of Human Knowledge,p.-26.

25. Ibid,pp.- 138-139.

26. Ibid , p. – 140.

27. Ibid.

 28.Ibid. p.- 146